Can technology really make learning easier? While there may never be a catch-all technology solution that will make learning easier for everyone in the classroom, there are some general principles to follow when designing instructional presentations that can at least help. The following suggestions are meant to cut across both technology-meager and technology-rich environments, and with proper implementation and consideration, technology can certainly supplant the creation of more effective presentation materials.
The main influences that govern information processing are “attention, interpretation, elaboration, generation, and retrieval practice” (deWinstanley & Bjork, 2002).
Attention: Being able to focus one’s attention on new information directly affects how that information is encoded.
Interpretation & Elaboration: Knowledge is “interpreted” when it connects with a learner’s prior knowledge, and the elaboration of information affords learners with multiple ways of encoding that information. When the two processes are combined, new information connects in multiple ways to one’s prior knowledge. These multiple connections afford learners with multiple ways of accessing that knowledge: “Elaborative processing deepens understanding, and processing information in a number of different ways results in more retrieval routes to the information” (p. 22, deWinstanley & Bjork, 2002).
Generation & Retrieval Practice: Knowledge is more strongly encoded when that knowledge is produced by the learner herself (Slamecka & Graf, 1978). As well, the act of retrieving information from memory strengthens how that knowledge is encoded in the brain.
With these principles in mind, deWinstanley and Bjork suggest that a few effective ways of designing lectures to improve student learning:
Spacing: Information is more effectively encoded when presented in small bits over longer periods of time, as opposed to one large chunk in a single timeframe (i.e., a single lecture).
Variability: Presenting information in multiple formats and in multiple contexts allows for interpretation and elaboration of that information.
Structure: Structuring information provides students with ways of generate and retrieve knowledge. deWinstanley and Bjork (2002) suggest providing students with minimal lecture outlines and concept maps as ways of structuring student thinking.
Mnemonics: By definition, mnemonics help learners remember information by allowing the brain to encode that information in ways that assist retrieval. Mental images, visual images (e.g., pictures, graphs, charts, etc.), analogies, strategically-placed enthusiasm, and even humor are effective mnemonic devices that help learning (deWinstanely & Bjork, 2002). Mnemonics can also help learners concentrate their attention where distractions may by an issue (such as an hour-long lecture).
Inquiry: Inquiry provides students with opportunities to generate their own elaborations and can help make their thinking explicit. As well, using inquiry in a lecture or presentation provides opportunities for active engagement.
As well, Paivio’s Dual Coding Theory suggests that the human brain processes sensory information (i.e., visual, audio, etc.) in separate channels. Because of this, cognitive load can easily reach capacity when there is too much demand on a given channel (e.g., visual). By presenting information in a way that distributes information processing across multiple channels, cognitive load is essentially increased, allowing a learner to attend to more information at a given moment. Richard Mayer, of the University of California at Santa Barbara, presents multiple studies that demonstrate this effect. For instance, by presenting subtitles of a narrated multi-media presentation on-screen (i.e., visually), individuals remembered less information from the presentation than if the narrative was presented auditorally (Moreno & Mayer, 2002). Mayer discusses the cognitive effects of using PowerPoint in education here.
References:
deWinstanley, Patricia Ann, Bjork, Robert A.. (2002) Successful lecturing: Presenting information in ways that engage effective processing. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, 89, 19-31.
Moreno, Roxana, Mayer, Richard E.. (2002). Verbal redundancy in multimedia learning: when reading helps listening. Journal of Educational Psychology, 94(1), 156-63.
Atkinson, Cliff. The Cognitive Load of PowerPoint: Q&A with Richard E. Mayer. http://www.sociablemedia.com/articles_mayer.htm.
Image Credit: Mike Baird via Flickr, used under a Creative Commons Attribution license.