Module 3a: Skill Acquisition
Behavior Analyst Certification Board Registered Behavior Technician™ (RBT®) Task List 2nd ed.
C-01 Identify the essential components of a written skill acquisition plan
C-02 Prepare for the session as required by the skill acquisition plan
C-03 Use contingencies of reinforcement
C-04 Implement discrete-trial training procedures
C-05 Implement naturalistic teaching procedures (e.g., incidental teaching)
C-06 Implement task analyzed chaining procedures
C-07 Implement Discrimination Training
C-08 Implement stimulus control transfer procedures
C-09 Implement prompt and prompt fading procedures
Introduction
When considering how to teach new skills one must once again re-visit the ABC model. As discussed in Module 1 and 2, antecedents come before a behavior and set the occasion for the behavior to occur. One type of antecedent is a discriminative stimulus (SD). These are stimuli that come before a behavior and signal available consequences. An SD signals the availability of reinforcement, due to a previous learning history in which the SD came before a behavior that was followed by reinforcement. Examples of SD’s can include any person, place, or thing including sensory stimuli. For instance, stop lights, stop signs, a water fountain, your best friend, your parent or guardian, an alarm clock, or a phone ringing could all function as an SD in a given situation. For example, in the presence of a stop sign, the behavior of stopping a vehicle is reinforced by the absence or avoidance of a car accident or ticket (negative reinforcement). Therefore, the stop sign signals the availability of reinforcement for stopping. An instructional demand (e.g., “what is your name?” “pick up the book,” “clean-up”, “point to the monkey”) can be taught to function as an SD. When this instructional demand is presented before the desired behavior and the behavior is followed by reinforcement, the instructional demand signals the available consequences for engaging in the desired behavior. Until the programmed instruction becomes an SD via ones learning history, it can be referred to as a putative SD. Putative meaning that it is presumed, accepted or has the potential to be the SD until learning takes place and the stimulus actually functions as the signal for the availability of reinforcement. The target behavior selected when teaching a new skill (which may also be referred to as the correct behavior in the context of skill acquisition) is a socially significant skill that the supervising BCBA has assessed to be a deficit in the client’s current behavioral repertoire. Lastly, the programmed consequences for correct responses should be stimuli that have been identified to be likely reinforcers. The reinforcer is not presented in the presence of the S Delta (other antecedent stimuli that we program not to evoke the target behavior) which therefore overtime does not signal the availability of reinforcement. This reinforcer is withheld for incorrect responses. Differential Reinforcement entails providing reinforcement specifically for desirable behavior and withholding reinforcement for incorrect or undesirable behavior (extinction). Such manipulations of antecedents and consequences can be used to teach new skills or decrease challenging behavior; therefore, these concepts will be reviewed in this module as well as Module 4: Behavior Reduction. Overall, this type of teaching experience is called Discrimination training and it is how we come to behave one way in the presence of certain stimuli and behavior in another way in the presence of other stimuli or the absence of a particular SD. Furthermore, a behavior that occurs more often in the presence of a certain stimulus, because the behavior has been reinforced when the discriminative stimulus is present is referred to as being under stimulus control.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Mg78gGZKrqk
Brief Discrimination Training Video Example 1
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=72cTgxtPYNU
Brief Discrimination Training Video Example 2
Discrete Trial Training
Discrete Trial Training (DTT) is a basic teaching strategy that breaks a skill down into a teaching opportunity with a distinct beginning and end (trial). Trials are separated by brief inter-trial intervals (Catania, 1998). The integral components of DTT include the presentation of a discriminative stimulus (e.g., a red card similar to those pictured below), a prompt to emit the target response (e.g., “Which one is red?’’ paired with physical guidance to touch the red card), followed by putative reinforcement for the correct response (e.g., praise paired with a small edible item). Prompts are then systematically faded until the student independently engages in the target response in the presence of relevant discriminative stimuli (Smith, 2001). It can be used to teach various social and academic skills (e.g., Koegel, Russo, & Rincover, 1977) such as imitation, receptive identification, expressive identification, matching, and answers to social questions. The environment, materials, and client responses are all teacher-directed.
Steps to A DTT Program
Step 1: Setting-up a DTT session. The management of environmental antecedents is necessary for success during a teaching session. The environment should be clear of all potential visual and auditory distractions. Any augmentative communication should be easily accessible to the client to communicate readily. Only the stimuli necessary for the task should be present and readily accessible. A characteristic of effective reinforcement is immediacy; thus, all reinforcers should be accessible to ensure the immediate reinforcement delivery for correct responses.
Stimuli for receptive programs. Stimuli will be required for many of the programs implemented. For programs that require a comparison array (e.g., receptive identification, matching, sorting) a minimum of a 3-stimuli array should be used for the client to respond towards. For instance, for a color matching program there will be a sample stimulus (e.g., a red card) and comparison stimuli to match the sample card to (e.g., a red card, brown card, and white card). In the comparison array, there should be one target stimuli (the correct match) and two or more distractor stimuli (those that are not a match)(figure3.1). For a receptive color identification program, an auditory stimulus/putative SD such as “Touch red” would be presented and then the client would respond to the 3-stimuli comparison array of one target stimuli (e.g., red card) and at least two distractor stimuli (e.g., brown card and white card).
Figure 3.1 Array with two distracters and one target
Arrays should be rotated between trials. Preparation of the array should be conducted during the inter-trial interval and should be done quickly (2-3 seconds). No stimuli should be in the same location for consecutive trials. The easiest way to do this when working with a 3 stimuli array is to move the stimulus all the way to the right, all the way to the left after each trial (figure 3.2). This prevents the client from responding based on the stimulus location rather than attending to the desired stimulus characteristics.
Trial 1
Trial 2
Figures 3.2 Example of a rotated array for two consecutive trials
Stimuli for expressive programs. In some cases, physical stimuli will be necessary for expressive programs, such as expressive identification programs. For instance, for each trial of an expressive color identification program, the paraprofessional would state an auditory stimulus/putative SD such as “What color is it?” in the presence of one sample stimulus such as a red card (figure 3.3). 
Figure 3.3 Example of Expressive ID stimuli
Step 2: Gain attention. It is critical to establish attending to the paraprofessional and the task before presenting the putative SD. This increases the likelihood that the client will respond correctly. Although it is important to note that not all clients look the same when they are attending. For instance, not every client needs to be seated without movement and providing eye contact to be considered attending. Yet, attending strategies may be necessary if the client is not looking at the materials before he or she responds towards them or is engaged in another interfering behavior. Sometimes a client has a separate program to learn readiness skills such as how to attend (e.g., scanning an array, responding to their name, making eye contact, sitting and orienting towards materials and/or a partner). Yet, attention can often be gained without previous training by sweeping the eye with a reinforcer or by blocking visual distractions. Repeating the client’s name or increasing volume and tone of voice or moving their head to orient them are not recommended. If attending is problematic for a client, it is best to consult with your BCBA to solve the issue.
Step 3: Deliver the putative SD. As previously noted, the SD was identified as the antecedent that when trained will signal the availability of reinforcement for a particular response(s). When delivering an instructional vocal/auditory SD’s, the paraprofessional should use a neutral tone of voice and state the instruction naturally but concisely. Therefore, this type of instructional SD is typically 1-4-word statements or questions. For example, appropriate putative SD’s for receptive identification of shapes would be “Touch square.”, “Find the square.” or “Point to the square.” Whereas appropriate putative SD’s for expressive shape identification would be “What Shape?” or “What Shape is it?”
Step 4: Prompting. A prompt is an additional stimulus provided by a teaching agent that increases the probability that the putative SD will evoke the desired response from the learner. There are two types of prompts: a stimulus prompt and response prompt. When using a stimulus prompt, a stimuli’s position, size, movement, or other characteristics (e.g., color) are altered to assist in prompting the desired response. There are three general types of response prompts. These prompts are provided after the putative SD is presented, while the client is expected to engage in the desired response.
- Verbal
Example: When a client is presented with the putative SD, “What color?” to identify a blue card, the paraprofessional may prompt the client by using a vocal-verbal prompt “b,” “bl,” or even stating the desired response, “blue.” depending on the prompt necessary. Example: Written-verbal instructions may also be used when completing a recipe to bake a cake. “crack 3 eggs,” and “mix the batter” may all be written on the cake mix box to prompt the baker to complete the steps.
2. Modeling
Paraprofessionals may use a client’s imitative repertoire to prompt a correct response using modeling. By engaging in the desired behavior first providing a model), paraprofessionals provide a prompt for the client to engage in the desired response.
3. Physical Guidance
Using this prompt, paraprofessionals physically guide the client to engage in the correct response. For example, when teaching a client to tie their shoes, a paraprofessional may place their hands over the client’s hands to assist them in crossing and looping the laces.
Example of a hand over hand full physical prompt for stacking blocks
Stimulus and response prompts can be used as an additional component to antecedent stimuli. An important component to the use of prompts, is the fading of such prompts. Prompts are used to minimize errors and increase the probability that the correct response will occur and contact reinforcement. Ideally, transfer of stimulus control from a controlling prompt to the sample stimulus is achieved over time by fading the prompt (Fisher, Kodak, & Moore, 2007). Example: When learning how to drive, Sheri’s driving instructor said, “brake” every time she approached a stop sign. At first, her instructor provided the prompt 3 seconds before approaching the stop sign. As she showed increased responding to the presence of this prompt the instructor faded the prompt by decreasing the amount before approaching the stop sign to deliver the prompt until she was able to brake when approaching a stop sign without the prompt to do so.
Errorless teaching is a discrimination teaching strategy based on the principles of behavior analysis that reduces the number of errors made by altering stimulus and/or response prompts to teach an array of skills (Mueller and Palkovic, 2007). This is beneficial because minimizing errors helps to ensure a learning history of new skills under the appropriate conditions. It also makes learning more appealing for the learner because if they are making fewer errors they are instead receiving more reinforcement for correct responding. Three of the six errorless teaching techniques reviewed by Mueller and Palkovic (2007) are outlined below:
Stimulus Prompts
- Stimulus fading: The physical dimension of a stimulus is highlighted to increase the likelihood of a correct response and is faded out systematically and gradually. For example, Luiselli and Donellon (1980) used stimulus fading to teach color identification. By writing the word of the color on a card of the same color and gradually fading the word from the card, the participant was eventually taught to name the color when only the colored card was presented in the absence of the word (figure 3.4).
Figure 3.4 Example of Stimulus Fading
Response Prompts
2. Delayed Prompting: Initially, an immediate prompt is presented then the time between the and the prompt increases.
3. Response Prevention: Undesired responses are physically blocked from occurring.
Example of DTT matching program errorless teaching incorrect response prevention/blocking
With the reliable occurrence of behavior following the SD, stimulus control is achieved (Cooper, Heron & Heward, p. 403). Stimulus control is when a certain response(s) occurs in the presence of a certain stimulus or set of stimuli and not in the presence of other stimuli, indicating that discrimination has occurred (Catania, 1998).
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eyKfl3Rmq_c
Stimulus Control video
Some prompting procedures that may be chosen by your supervising BCBA to transfer stimulus control to more naturally occurring stimuli are identified below (Wolery & Gast, 1984):
- Most to least prompts: During skill acquisition, response prompts can be faded from most to least intrusive (decreasing prompt hierarchy).
An example a physical most to least prompt hierarchy is outlined below:
Putative SD: “Throw the cup away”
Full Physical (FP): Hand over hand guidance
Light Physical (LP): Light guidance at the forearm
Gesture (G): Point to the cup and then to the thrash.
Independent (I): No prompt
An example a most to least vocal prompt hierarchy is outlined below:
Putative SD: “What is your name?”
Full Vocal (FV): “Patrick”
Partial Vocal (PV): “Patri”
Initial Sound (IS): “P.”
Independent (I): No prompt
Example of physical prompting
Examples of vocal prompting
2. Least to most prompts: When using least to most prompts the least intrusive prompt is provided and increased until the desired response occurs (increasing prompt hierarchy). Therefore, as shown in the examples below, least to most prompting would entail the inverse of the most to least examples above.
An example a physical least to most prompt hierarchy is outlined below:
Putative SD: “Throw the cup away”
Independent (I): No prompt
Gesture (G): Point to the cup and then to the thrash
Light Physical (LP): Light guidance at the forearm
Full Physical (FP): Hand over hand guidance
An example a least to most vocal prompt hierarchy is outlined below:
Putative SD: “What is your name?”
Independent (I): No prompt
Initial Sound (IS): “P.”
Partial Vocal (PV): “Patri”
Full Vocal (FV): “Patrick”
3. Time delay: Time delay is structured so that the presentation of the teacher’s prompt is delayed for increasing intervals following the putative SD, by increasing the delay on each successive instructional trial (progressive time delay) or across blocks of trials or instructional sessions (constant time delay) (McDonnell, 1987). The time delay typically starts at 0 seconds and increases based upon criteria prescribed on a lesson plan. As the time delay increases, the prompt is faded.
An example of a least to most vocal prompt hierarchy with one trial at a 2 second time delay is outlined below:
Putative SD: “What is your name?”
No prompt
Wait 2 seconds
If no response, provide an Initial Sound (IS): “P.”
Wait 2 seconds
If no response, provide a Partial Vocal (PV): “Patri”
Wait 2 seconds
If no response, provide a Full Vocal (FV): “Patrick”
EXAMPLE Constant time delay: The teacher presented the designated prompt for each trial immediately (0 s delay) following the presentation of the putative SD. Following three consecutive correct trials at 0 s delay, the teacher moved to a 3 s delay following the presentation of the putative SD. Following three consecutive correct trials at 3 s delay, the teacher moved to a 5 s delay following the presentation of the putative SD.
EXAMPLE Progressive time delay: The teacher presented the designated prompt for the first trial immediately (0 s delay) following the presentation of the putative SD. In the following trial, the teacher moved to a 3 s delay following the presentation of the putative SD. In the next trial, the teacher moved to a 5 s delay following the presentation of the putative SD.
4. Stimulus shaping: In stimulus shaping, the topographical configuration of the stimuli is gradually changed over trials so that discrimination is at first easy, and then gradually more difficult. (Mosk & Bucher, 1984). The paraprofessional starts by reinforcing a stimulus-response relation that the learner already has or can acquire easily, and gradually changes the stimuli until the desired stimulus-response relation is reached. An example of stimulus fading is represented in a research study conducted by Stoddard & Sidman (1967), in which children learned to discriminate a circle from ellipses. Fading techniques were used to transfer stimulus control from bright keys with a circle and dark keys without a circle, then the keys dark keys had ellipses superimposed on them and eventually the light and dark backgrounds were faded until the discrimination was made between the circle versus ellipse.
Unfortunately, for some clients correct responding becomes dependent on the controlling prompt and little progress is made when attempting to fade the prompts. This phenomenon has been defined as prompt dependency (Clark & Green, 2004). Furthermore, when prompts are implemented incorrectly, more intrusively or excessively, clients can learn to respond to the antecedent with the prompt (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, p. 403). Prompts should be faded to a more natural stimulus in a systematic way to avoid potential prompt dependency. Adhering to prompting criteria by providing prompts only when needed, providing prescribed prompts, and increasing and decreasing prompt intrusiveness according to prescribed criteria can decrease the likelihood that prompt dependency may occur. In addition, differential reinforcement (a concept that will be discussed further in module 4) for prompted versus independent correct responses is also necessary to decrease prompt dependency (Cividini-Motta & Ahearn 2013). For instance, a more potent reinforcer should be delivered following correct independent responses than correct prompted responses. An example of this could be providing praise and a piece of chocolate for correct independent responses and only providing praise for correct prompted responses.
Step 5: Programmed consequences (reinforcement and error correction). When the client engages in the desired response, reinforcement should occur. This increases the likelihood that the desired response will occur again. Reinforcement must occur immediately after the desired response. In Module 2, reinforcers have been categorized as edible, tangible, activity, social, and sensory. All reinforcers should be paired with varied praise (e.g. “that’s right,” “good job,” “awesome work”). This pairing presumably conditions the specific reinforcer with the praise so it can be faded to a more natural reinforcer over time. Reinforcers are specific for each client. Identifying and assessing for preference to use as potential reinforcers will be reviewed in Module 6.
Error correction. If an undesired response occurs, error correction should be implemented. The undesired response can occur after the putative SD is provided; before, during, or after the prompt; response does not occur at all. Error correction steps are outlined below.
1. Stop the trial. This may include the removal of stimuli and if applicable, blocking the remainder of the incorrect response.
2. Re-present the stimuli and re-state the putative
3. Provide the most intrusive prompt in the hierarchy to
4. Provide feedback using a neutral tone of voice (e.g. “That’s right”)
5. Collect data on the trial in which the error occurred (-)
Please note that data collection above is only that of one trial and one incorrect response, that is because an incorrect response and its error correction are considered one trial. Although the client responded correctly with the implementation of the error correction, they did not respond correctly when initially presented with the putative SD. Clients may respond independently of the prescribed prompt. This happens when a client responds correctly after the putative SD has been presented, but before the prompt is provided. When an independent response occurs, the reinforcer provided should be highly preferred/potent to increase the likelihood of additional independent responses.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0JAxNItos3A
Discrete trial review video
Example of error correction for a physical response (graphomotor).
Example of error correction for vocal response (social questions).
Example of error correction for a vocal response (expressive ID).
Step 6: data collection. Data collection occurs after each trial. General data collection methods include collecting data on independent responses (+), correct with prescribed prompt (+p), incorrect responses (-) and no response (NR). At times, a lesson plan may also ask that you include the prompt (e.g. light physical, initial sound) needed to perform the skill (e.g., least to most or most to least prompting).
Baseline
Baseline is a condition in which the teaching procedure is not present. Data collected during baseline are the basis for determining the effects of the teaching procedure. Baseline is conducted when beginning any new teaching program. Determining baseline levels of responding will determine if a program requires teaching, the type of prompt(s), and provide a comparison to demonstrate whether the teaching procedures used were effective in teaching the target skill. When a paraprofessional conducts a baseline procedure for any given teaching program (e.g., DTT) there are two steps that are not conducted. The steps that are omitted during baseline are prompting and reinforcement/error correction. When baseline data have been collected and identify that the client cannot perform the skill to criterion, teaching can begin.
Components of a DTT lesson plan. The general components of a DTT lesson plan include the: program title, objective, materials, Baseline procedures, data collection method, error correction procedure, prompt hierarchy, criteria to increase and decrease prompt intrusiveness, criteria for mastery, generalization, maintenance considerations and an outline of the Teaching procedure for paraprofessional use.
Figure 3.5 Example of a DTT Lesson Plan
Natural Environment Teaching
Natural environment teaching (NET) incorporates learning opportunities provided in the natural environment to teach various skills. NET differs from discrete trial training because opportunities are client-directed, not teacher-directed (Hart & Risley, 1975). Paraprofessionals can enrich the environment with novel, interesting or preferred items and arrange the environment with certain materials that may promote independent client engagement. After a client engages with an item, they can be prompted to engage in various skills such as social skills, motor skills, and/or verbal skills. When implementing NET, paraprofessionals use items or activities in the child’s environment that may already function as reinforcers (or are at the very least preferred items) to pair themselves with. Over time, this procedure pairs the paraprofessional with the reinforcing items/activities and the paraprofessional becomes a conditioned reinforcer. Following pairing, NET or any teaching strategy of that matter is more likely to be successful. Both NET and DTT use prompting, shaping, fading, discrimination training, and errorless learning (McGee, Krantz, & McClannahan, 1986). For example, a paraprofessional may teach imaginary play during a session in which the child chooses to play with a kitchen set. The paraprofessional can prompt the client to follow a recipe, have a dinner party, engage in social interactions by inviting others to the dinner party and asking them what they would like to eat, make sounds in relation to eating the food (i.e “yum”), request for food items, share food and clean up after cooking and eating. In a form of NET, called incidental teaching the paraprofessional may also contrive opportunities for the client to engage in various skills within an enriched natural environment. The environment may be baited with the presence of items that will encourage certain skills that are currently being targeted for intervention. For example, if the identification of animals is being worked on and the child likes picture books, various picture books with animals may be added to the teaching environment. The environment may also be manipulated with the absence of items to encourage certain skills targeted for intervention. For example, if the child is being taught to request missing items or ask for help, the paraprofessional may provide access to a highly preferred coloring activity only once per session and be sure to omit one of the necessary materials (i.e., provide a coloring book, table, and chair but no crayons). This omission would set the occasion for the child to be prompted to ask for crayons. In module 2, we discussed satiation and deprivation which are known as antecedent stimuli called motivating operations. Motivating operations momentarily make a reinforcer more or less valuable, thereby also momentarily increasing or decreasing the likelihood of responding. Motivating operations are also known as setting events. Capitalizing on naturally occurring motivating operations (e.g., hunger) or contriving motivating operations (e.g., only offering a coloring activity once per session) are important strategies for use during NET. In the example above there would presumably be a momentary increase in the value of access to crayons, therefore, setting the occasion for responding in the form of requesting crayons. Hart and Risley (1975) indicated five examples of skills that incidental teaching can be used to teach:
Motor Skills
1. Mimetic (motor imitation)
Example: Paraprofessional and the client both have a train toy. The paraprofessional says runs a train on the tracks and the client imitates that action. Paraprofessionals says “Nice! Its so fun playing trains with you!”
Vocal Verbal Skills
2. Echoic (vocal imitation) Example: While the paraprofessional and client run trains on the track, paraprofessional says “choo, choo” and the client echoes “choo, choo”. The Paraprofessional says “Good job a train says choo, choo!
3. Manding (requesting item(s)) Example: Paraprofessional puts a toy train out of the client’s reach on a shelf, but still in sight to set the occasion for the client to say, “I want train.” Paraprofessional immediately gets the toy train down from a shelf and gives it to the client.
4. Tacting (labeling item(s)) Example: Paraprofessional puts toy trains and tracks out and the client says, “I see trains and a track.” Paraprofessional says, “Good Job, those are trains and a track!”
5. Intraverbal: (filling in the blanks, responding to conversational volleys) Example: Paraprofessional stops train on track, and says “Ready, set…” and client responds “go” and paraprofessional starts train on the track and says “woohoo, nice job, off we go!”
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yzgC9ZPzot8
Incidental teaching/NET review video
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0juQbMrJggY
NET video example 1
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E-QpdLJWjwI
DTT and NET Comparison Video
Task Analysis
Task Analysis (TA) is a procedure for teaching complex behavior known as a chain of behavior by breaking it down into a series of smaller steps (Cooper, Heron &; Heward, p. 437). Each response in a chain is defined by the reinforcing consequence of producing the opportunity to engage in the next response until the final response in the sequence results in the terminal reinforcer (Catania, 2013). Examples of behavior chains you may teach using a TA are handwashing, toileting, dressing, making a meal and tying ones. Each step is taught one by one and chained together resulting in the completion of the complex behavior chain. When teaching a behavior chain, a putative S D to signal performance of the chain may be provided before the client engages in the chain. For example, the S D for handwashing might be “Wash your hands.” The step that is currently being taught to independence is referred to as the training step. Physical prompting is used to prompt the steps of a behavior chain. Natural reinforcement such as clean hands or a prepared bowl of cereal occurs at the end of a behavior chain, however programmed reinforcement such as praise and a preferred item or activity are also often necessary to teach such skills. There are three methods of TAs: forward chaining, backward chaining, and total task chaining.
Forward Chaining
In forward chaining, the first step in the chain is the first training step, and then the second, third, and so on, until the entire chain has been taught. Therefore, prompting starts at the first step and once each step is performed independently the rest of the chain is fully prompted. In addition, programmed reinforcement is provided when the criterion for the training step is achieved. Reinforcement is presented thereafter following the cumulative practice of all steps as well (Cooper, Heron & Heward, p. 442).
Example: Eating Lunch (open the lunchbox, cut the food, scoop the food, place food in their mouth) At the beginning of training, the paraprofessional states, “It’s time for lunch” prompts the first step (opening the lunchbox), provides reinforcement for that step, and then assists the client in performing all the steps after that. Reinforcement is also provided for the cumulative completion of all steps in the chain.
Backward Chaining
In a backward chain teaching starts at the end of the behavioral chain with the last component/step closet to the terminal reinforcer being the training step (Catania, 1998). (Cooper, Heron & Heward, p. 443). Again, all responses in the TA are fully prompted by the except for the step that is being trained. Therefore, the last step in the chain will be taught to independence first and then the second to last step, and so on until the entire chain is demonstrated independently.
Example: Eating Lunch (open the lunchbox, cut the food, scoop the food, place food in their mouth) At the beginning of training, the paraprofessional states, “It’s time for lunch” prompts the clients through all the steps except the last step (placing food in the mouth) and provides programmed reinforcement (e.g., praise) along with the naturally occurring reinforcer of food. Thereafter, reinforcement is provided for the cumulative completion of the final two steps, three steps, and so on.
Total-Task Chaining
Prompts are provided for any steps that the client is unable to perform independently. Total-task chaining may be appropriate when the client can already perform many of the steps in the chain, has an established generalized imitative repertoire or when the sequence is not long or complex (Cooper, Heron & Heward, p. 442).
Example: Eating Lunch (open the lunchbox, cut the food, scoop the food, place food in their mouth) At the beginning of training, the paraprofessional states, “It’s time for lunch” prompts any steps the client does not initiate on their own (e.g., least to most physical prompting), blocks errors and provides reinforcement for the completion of all steps in the chain.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mIAJ8SKLkGY
TA video overview
References
Catania A.C. (1998) Learning [4th] ed. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.
Catania A.C. (2013) Learning [5th] ed. Sloan Publishing, Cornwall on the Hudson, New York.
Cividini?Motta, C., &; Ahearn, W. H. (2013). Effects of two variations of differential reinforcement on prompt dependency. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 46(3), 640-650.
Clark, K. M. & Green, G. (2004). Comparison of two procedures for teaching dictated- word/symbol relations to learners with autism. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 37, 503- 507.
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L. (2007). Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd ed.). Columbus, OH: Merrill Prentice Hall.
Fisher, W. W., Kodak, T., & Moore, J. W. (2007). Embedding an identity-matching task within a prompting hierarchy to facilitate the acquisition of conditional discriminations in children with autism. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 40, 489-499.
Hart, B., & Risley, T.R. (1975). Incidental teaching of language in the preschool. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 8(4), 411-420.
Koegel, R. L., Russo, D. C., & Rincover, A. (1977). Assessing and Training Teachers in the Generalized use of Behavior Modification with Autistic Children. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 10, 197–205.
Luiselli, J.K. & Donellon, S. (1980). Use of a visual stimulus fading procedure to teach color naming to an autistic child. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 11(1), 73-76.
McDonnell, J. (1987). The effects of time delay and increasing prompt hierarchy strategies on the acquisition of purchasing skills by students with severe handicaps. Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 12(3), 227-236.
McGee, G. G., Krantz, P. J., & McClannahan, L. E. (1986). An extension of incidental teaching to reading instruction for autistic children. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 19, 147–157.
Mosk, M. D., & Bucher, B. (1984). Prompting and stimulus shaping procedures for teaching visual-motor skills to retarded children. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 17(1), 23–34. http://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1984.17-23
Mueller, M., Palkovic, C., Maynard, C. (2007). Errorless learning: Review and practical application for teaching children with pervasive developmental disorders. Psychology in the Schools, 44(7), 691-700.
Sidman, M., & Stoddard, L. T. (1967). The effectiveness of fading in programming a simultaneous form discrimination for retarded children. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 10(1), 3–15. http://doi.org/10.1901/jeab.1967.10-3
Smith, T. (2001). Discrete trial training in the treatment of autism. Focus on autism and other developmental disabilities, 16(2), 86-92.
Wolery, M., & Gast, D.L. (1984). Effective and efficient procedures for the transfer of stimulus control. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 4, 52-77.