Module 3b: Skill Acquisition
Behavior Analyst Certification Board Registered Behavior Technician™ (RBT®) Task List 2nd ed.
C-11 Implement shaping procedures
C-12 Implement token economy procedures
C-10 Implement generalization and maintenance procedures
Shaping Procedures
Shaping is the reinforcement of successive approximations of the desired behavior. Cooper, Heron & Heward (2020) breakdown shaping into three parts: 1) detecting a change in the learner’s environment 2) making a discriminate judgment about where that change is a closer approximation of the terminal behavior and 3) differentially reinforcing that successive approximation (Recall that differential reinforcement entails providing reinforcement for a particular response and withholding reinforcement for other responses). These steps are repeated until the response progressively becomes more differentiated and results in the terminal behavior. Shaping can be used to teach a multitude of new behaviors to our clients (e.g., toilet training, handwriting skills, or leisure skills) as well as in our own daily life (e.g., playing an instrument, perfecting a golf swing) (Catania, 2013). When teaching via shaping the prompting procedures we have already reviewed may be used to reach the teaching goal. A BCBA will need to monitor the progress the client is making towards the terminal behavior and modify the program as needed until the desired behavior is reached.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nd6rUQzMA2o
Shaping video overview
https://behaviorexplorer.com/articles/portl-intro/
PORTL (The Portable Operant Research and Teaching Lab) video to break down the process of teaching shaping
Token Economies
Recall that reinforcers are consequence stimuli that increase the target behavior they follow. There are two categories of reinforcers: unconditioned and conditioned. An unconditioned reinforcer is not learned during an organism’s lifetime (e.g., food water, warmth) and may also be referred to as an unlearned or primary reinforcer (Cooper, Heron & Heward, 2007). A conditioned reinforcer is acquired during an organism’s lifetime (e.g., tokens) and may also be referred to as a learned or secondary reinforcer (Cooper, Heron & Heward, 2007). A generalized conditioned reinforcer is one that has been paired with many other reinforcers. Therefore, it can be traded in for several terminal reinforcers. Money is a prime example of a generalized conditioned reinforcer as it can be accumulated and traded for a number of commodities. Neutral stimuli can become conditioned as a reinforcer via pairing with an unconditioned reinforcer. A token is an object (e.g., poker chips, stickers, checks in a box, marbles) that is exchanged for a terminal reinforcer (e.g., a snack, game, activity, outing). A token economy is a reinforcement technique in which such conditioning is used so that a token can be provided as a generalized conditioned reinforcer. Token training (conditioning) must occur prior to the use of a token economy system. Most tokens start as neutral stimuli and must be first conditioned to function as a reinforcer. This is done my systematically pairing a token with an unconditioned reinforcer on a continuous schedule of reinforcement. Recall that in a CRF schedule, reinforcement is provided contingent on each occurrence of the target behavior and that it is most beneficial when teaching new skills including establishing a token economy. After a period of pairing a token and the terminal unconditioned reinforcer the number of tokens required to access the unconditioned/terminal reinforcer is gradually increased. In addition, some clients may also be given rule statements to assist with learning the token economy system ( e.g., For each math problem you complete you will earn a token once you earn 20 tokens you can take a 10 minute break with your iPad). When properly introduced, the tokens will become reinforcing in and of themselves.
Token economies have been successfully used in educational and rehabilitative settings to teach almost any skill, such as academic work, social skills and even physical exercise habits (Hackenberg, 2009). For example, recently Krentz, Miltenberger and Valbuena, D. (2016) evaluated the effectiveness of token reinforcement for increasing the distance walked for adults with mild to moderate intellectual disabilities at an adult day?training center. Five participants earned tokens for walking 50?m laps and exchanged tokens for back?up reinforcers that had been identified through preference assessments. Token reinforcement resulted in a substantial increase from baseline in laps walked for 4 of the 5 participants. In 2020, Nastasi, Sheppard, and Raiff replicated this research by giving tokens contingent on meeting increasing step goals over an 8-week period of time, tracked via a Fitbit Flex™. The token intervention substantially increased the physical activity of three of four participants.
Miltenberger (2001) discussed the fact that token economies can require different degrees of effort depending upon their complexity. For example, implementing a token economy requires such considerations as defining the target behaviors, deciding what the tokens will be, and establishing a token exchange schedule (Miltenberger, 2001). Therefore, a behavior plan that includes tokens will include three standard components 1) the target behavior/expectation to earn a token 2) the schedule of tokens earned for engaging in the identified behavior; and 3) the terminal reinforcers that are available contingent on earning the identified number of tokens. The type of tokens, behaviors, schedule of exchange, type of exchange, and reinforcers will all be individualized. For example, one child may earn real money or fake money they can exchange for desired items, and another child may earn check marks and after obtaining a certain number of checks, he or she will earn a desired item or activity.
Reflect back to schedules of reinforcement. Recall that a schedule of reinforcement is a rule that describes the contingency by which behavior will produce reinforcement. It can be defined by the time which passes (interval) or the number of responses emitted (ratio) since the previous reinforcement was delivered (Ferster & Skinner, 1957). Token economies can operate under various schedules of reinforcement. There is a schedule for token delivery as well as a schedule for the number of tokens that must be accumulated for delivery of the terminal reinforcer. Again, the supervising BCBA will decide which schedules of reinforcement are currently appropriate for each individual client served.
Example descriptions of simple token economy schedules
- Fixed Ratio: Token is delivered after a fixed number of target behavior responses
- FR1 token delivery= 1 token is delivered for every instance of the target behavior. The client may then have to earn 5 tokens (FR5) to earn the terminal reinforcer
- Variable Ratio: Token is delivered after an average number of target behavior responses
- VR2 token delivery= on average a token is delivered for every 2 instances of the target behavior. The client may then have to earn 10 tokens (FR10) to earn the terminal reinforcer
- Fixed Interval (with Differential reinforcement of Other behavior (DRO)): Token is delivered after interval elapses without target behavior.
- FR5 minutes token delivery= 1 token is delivered after 5 minutes has elapsed with the absence of the target behavior. The client may then have to earn 3 tokens (FR3) to earn the terminal reinforcer.
- Variable Interval (with Differential reinforcement of Other behavior (DRO)): Token is delivered after the first target behavior following each average interval
- VR10 minutes token delivery= 1 token is delivered after an average of 10 minutes has elapsed with the absence of the target behavior. The client may then have to earn 6 tokens (FR6) to earn the terminal reinforcer.
One benefit of token economy systems is that they mitigate the momentary effects of motivation. For instance, a token paired with a wide range of backup reinforcers is likely to be effective across a range of motivating operation conditions (Ivy et al., 2015). This makes tokens useful when preferences change quickly and/or environmental factors change the person’s motivation for a particular reinforcer, because tokens can be exchanged for several different reinforcer choices. Another benefit of using a token economy is that it allows for a delay to the terminal reinforcer. Although the use of frequent and immediate reinforcement is often the most effective method of behavior change however, in many settings such as the classroom setting this may be difficult to do as it can interrupt teaching time and other classroom activities, especially if the teacher or behavior technician is working with more than one child. Some classroom setting may even institute classroom wide reinforcement systems such as a token economy to circumvent this issue. As previously mentioned in module 2, the goal for all reinforcement is always to fade reliance on frequent reinforcement. Therefore, a token economy allows for less frequent access to terminal reinforcers to acquire skills. However, it is also important to fade out additional resources as the child makes progress. Therefore, praise should always be paired with tokens as well, so that they may eventually complete tasks for social praise.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-kwwH6Q1WVs
Token Economy video
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ub68dzs0ZnY
Token economy video overview
Generalization
Continuing to perform a mastered target behavior in another setting or when the setting has been altered, with other people, or engaging in untrained responses that are equivalent to the original target behavior is referred to as generalization (Cooper, Heron & Heward, p. 617). Generalization is an important component of any behavior change program. Socially significant outcomes typically do not occur in one setting or situation. Developing and implementing programs that promote generalization is necessary to build a client’s skills to be used across their lifetime. NET promotes generalization because it capitalizes on antecedent stimuli and naturally occurring reinforcers that the client is likely to encounter throughout their day.
Example: A client learns to identify the color red via a DTT program using flashcards. Incidental teaching is then taught to identify a red block during playtime, a red crayon during art, and a red heart during circle time with another teacher.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qUqqxoTfMEE
Stimulus Control & Generalization video
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xU395HgXl2s
Generalization video
There are several strategies to promote generalization and some are outlined below:
Teach Sufficient Stimulus Examples (Stokes and Baer, 1977)
Clients are taught a skill using multiple stimuli/exemplars. For example, if a client is learning to receptively identify a picture of a dog, pictures of different breeds of dogs could be used to offer multiple stimulus examples.
Teach Behavior to Levels Required by Natural Contingencies (Cooper, Heron & Heward, 2007)
Learned behaviors may not always receive access to the reinforcement necessary to promote long-lasting behavior change. For example, a client may have learned to take turns while playing a game with the staff. However, if while playing that game with a peer, the client is unable to keep up with the pace of the game set by the peer, the client will not access the natural reinforcement that would be provided had the client been able to keep pace. Therefore, the client will need to be trained in this context to promote long term success and generalization to games with peers.
Teach Loosely (Stokes & Baer, 1977)
With this procedure, parts of the training stimuli or setting may be altered or varied so that the client learns to respond correctly in the presence of a variety of stimuli or settings. For example, when teaching receptive identification of colors, varying the S D from “point to (color),” “touch (color),” “show me (color)” would all be examples of varied antecedent stimuli that should presumably result in the same response.
Program Common Stimuli
Simulating or teaching skills within the natural environment (e.g., incidental teaching) and with common stimuli the child may encounter (e.g., teaching with toys or materials likely to be found in the child’s natural environment) promotes generalization.
Negative, or “Don’t Do It” Teaching Examples (Cooper, Heron & Heward, 2007)
This strategy entails teaching the client contexts in which the client should not engage in a particular behavior. For example, a client may have been taught to greet and hug family members. However, it is inappropriate to hug unfamiliar people, therefore reinforcement should not be provided for engaging in this response with unfamiliar people.
General Case Analysis (Cooper, Heron & Heward, 2007)
Following an analysis of different stimuli and responses necessary to complete a task, the client is taught in the presence of a variety of stimulus variations that would require similar responses. For example, teaching a client to wash his hands under conditions requiring responses to both manual and automatic faucets, pump soap dispensers and automatic soap dispensers, and/or automatic hand dryers as well as paper towel dispensers.
Ask People in the Generalization Setting to Reinforce the Behavior (Cooper, Heron & Heward, 2007)
Others can assist in teaching the skill in addition to the paraprofessional. For example, if a client is learning to respond to greetings, then multiple adults should say “Hello” to the client and then provide reinforcement contingent on the client responding to the greeting.
Teach the Learner to Recruit Reinforcement (Cooper, Heron & Heward, 2007)
Teaching the client to request reinforcement for desired behavior from others promotes access to natural reinforcement and in turn an increase in the desired behavior.
Maintenance
After mastery criteria have been met, the maintenance phase begins. Maintenance is verified if a learner continues to perform the target behavior after a portion of or all of the teaching intervention has been terminated. Maintenance typically consists of weekly probe sessions of the mastered skill for several weeks. In addition, it would be expected that the skill would also be demonstrated outside of sessions during naturally occurring opportunities. For example, if a client mastered the expressive identification of the number 1 after being taught with flashcards. He also generalized this skill. When the flashcard was presented a week after mastery the client continued to identify the number 1 independently. In addition, when he saw the number 1 on a magnet on the refrigerator, he could also expressively identify it. If a client does not continue to demonstrate the skill during the maintenance phase, the skill may need to be taught again.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=He3I7pljtQ4
Maintenance Video
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Stakeholder Training
An important component of the generalization and maintenance of skills is the training of those who interact with the client on a regular basis (stakeholders). This may include parents, siblings, other family members, caregivers, or other professionals. In many cases, stakeholders may have minimal understanding of ABA and will require training and support to promote the skills of the client outside of sessions. Under the supervision of the BCBA, a paraprofessional assists with such training. In fact, being that the first thing a paraprofessional must do to support stakeholder training is to be competent in their skills and understand the needs of their client, a paraprofessionals own training to work with a client is conducted using the BST model. Therefore, a paraprofessional will use the same model used to teach them to work with a client to teach stakeholders how to interact with a client. Achieving and maintaining the RBT® credential are the first steps in doing this. You have an ethical obligation to your competence which will be discussed further in Module 7.
Behavioral Skills Training (BST) is an evidence-based model that supports teaching the performance of various skills to those who have previous experience as well as those with minimal to no experience with a given skill (Parsons, Rollyson, &; Reid, 2012). The steps to conduct a BST model were described by Parsons, Rollyson, & Reid (2013) and are outlined below as they relate to stakeholder training:
Step 1: Provide a rationale
This rationale describes what behaviors comprise the skill and why the skill is important to client learning. By providing this rationale, stakeholders can begin to understand why their involvement is critical and buy-in will begin to occur.
Step 2: Provide a verbal and written description of the procedure
These descriptions outline exactly what the stakeholder should do. Written descriptions should be concise. They can also be written in steps. Paraprofessionals can reference this document directly if stakeholders present any questions. Behavior Reduction Procedures or lesson plans may provide more information than needed and can confuse stakeholders and should not be directly used. Verbal descriptions can mirror the written description.
Step 3: Model the skill
Model the skill directly with the client. In vivo modeling is ideal, however, video modeling and role-playing with another person are sufficient modes to modeling. Stakeholders will also benefit from a model of various scenarios (e.g., “This is what you do if…,” “If this happens, do this…,” “In this setting, you may need to do this…”).
Step 4: Practice the skill.
This is an often-overlooked component of the process as it requires additional time and effort. Stakeholders should be observed implementing the skill with the client. Direct observation and data collection of the trainee’s performance should be collected.
Step 5: Feedback
Feedback should be catered to the parent. This may be provided graphically, written, vocally, or in combination. Although it is ideal to provide this feedback immediately, it may be more appropriate to delay feedback. When providing feedback, supportive praise/supportive feedback should occur first followed up with corrective feedback. Detail not what they did incorrectly, but how they can perform the skills in the future.
Step 6: Demonstration of skill. Provide practice
Practice and feedback should continue until the stakeholder can consistently and accurately train the skill.
Identifying Cultural and Social Variables Influencing Stakeholder Training
Although it is important to know how to execute stakeholder training, it is also important to consider other variables that may affect stakeholder training. Parents often expect interventions to offer quick results or improvement for their child (e.g., antibiotics) (Allen and Warzak, 2000). Behavior change occurs over time. The lack of immediacy in that change may no longer serve as reinforcement for the parent to continue implementing treatment. Additional constraints to stakeholder training may occur with adherence to treatment. Lack of this adherence may occur as a result of demographic, socioeconomic, and cognitive, social variables. Identification of these variables and incorporating those variables into training and treatment may increase the effectiveness of stakeholder training. Paraprofessionals can support buy-in by developing effective interventions that will not only attribute to lasting behavior change for clients but require minimal response effort and are based upon the client and family setting. Response effort can be linked to treatment integrity. Developing interventions that take into consideration social community acceptance can be linked to buy-in by stakeholders (Allen & Warzak, 2000).
References
Allen, K., & Warazk, W.J. (2000). The problem of parental nonadherence in clinical behavior analysis: Effective treatment is not enough. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 3(33), 373-391.
Catania A.C. (2013) Learning [5th] ed. Sloan Publishing, Cornwall on the Hudson, New York.
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., &; Heward, W. L. (2007). Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd ed.). Pearson Education Inc. Hoboken, New Jersey.
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., &; Heward, W. L. (2020). Applied Behavior Analysis (3rd ed.). Columbus, OH: Merrill Prentice Hall.
Ferster, C. B., & Skinner, B. F. (1957). Schedules of reinforcement.
Hackenberg, T. D. (2009). Token reinforcement: A review and analysis. Journal of the experimental analysis of behavior, 91(2), 257-286.
Ivy, J. W., Meindl, J. N., Overley, E., & Robson, K. M. (2017). Token economy: A systematic review of procedural descriptions. Behavior Modification, 41(5), 708-737.
Krentz, H., Miltenberger, R. and Valbuena, D. (2016), Using token reinforcement to increase walking for adults with intellectual disabilities. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, (49) 45-750. doi:10.1002/jaba.326
Miltenberger, R. G. (2001). Behavior modification: Principles and procedures. (2nd ed.). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole Publishing Co.
Nastasi, JA, Sheppard, RD, Raiff, BR (2020). Token?economy?based contingency management increases daily steps in adults with developmental disabilities. Behavioral Interventions. 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1002/bin.1711
Parsons, M.B., Rollyson, J.H., & Reid, D.H. (2012). Evidence-based staff training: A guide for practitioners. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 5, 2-11.
Parsons, M.B., Rollyson, J.H., & Reid, D.H. (2013). Teaching practitioners to conduct behavioral skills training: A pyramidal approach for training multiple human service staff. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 6(2), 4-16.
Stokes, T., Baer, D. (1977). An implicit technology of generalization. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 10(2), 349-367. Wolery, M., & Gast, D.L. (1984). Effective and efficient procedures for the transfer of stimulus control. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 4, 52-77.